The Second Epoch ( 1980 ) - 1187 Words

The Second Epoch (1980 – 2000s) In the second epoch, the emphasis shifted from regulations to coordinating the objectives of the environment with other social and economic priorities, with more attention to human health effects, and to carrying out the environmental policies that were on books, more resourcefully. In a couple of instances, new goals were formed which went beyond the former goals, for example, including dangerous materials and hazardous waste to the environmental policy agenda, the additionally demanding provisions of the Clean Air Act of 1990, and the more prominent acknowledgment of the international and worldwide implications of pollution. However, the pace of enactment and the coverage of sources of pollution- which were newly identified-- slowed considerably in comparison with the first epoch. What changed most particularly was confidence in the philosophy of regulation and firm control by the government.4 It turned out to be clear that legislation alone, could neither direct nor police all org anizations and groups all over the country, nor could it bear all the obligation regarding empowering creative reactions to environmental issues. This was not just a response to the growing involvement of the government. Underlying the second epoch was the acknowledgment that considerable advancement had been accomplished in lessening harmful environmental discharges and upgrading protection of resources, in policy if not generally in deed. After over 10 years ofShow MoreRelatedGlobalization And International Business : Globalization954 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Impact of Globalization† supports the growth of globalization and the benefits will ultimately reduce poverty; in the last 20 years the percentage of the world’s population fallen from 33% to 17%. 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Minimum Wage in Malaysia Free Essays

Minimum wage in Malaysia: need for it and its’ possible effectiveness 1. 0. Introduction Background Information There has been growing debates concerning the minimum wage in Malaysia, with strong opinions from both sides of the arguments. We will write a custom essay sample on Minimum Wage in Malaysia or any similar topic only for you Order Now In 1979 edition of their introductory textbook, William B. Aumol and Alan Blinder explained, â€Å"The primary consequence of the minimum wage law is not an increase in the incomes of the least skilled workers but a restriction of their employment opportunities† (p. 7). On the other side of the debate, social activists, policymakers and other non-economists often argue for an increase in the minimum wage. Advocates of the minimum wage have included Franklin D. Roosevelt, Martin Luther King, A. Philip Randolph, Walter R. Reuther, Edward Filene, Beatrice and Sydney Webb. Finally, Malaysia took its stance and made its first legislative attempt at putting in place a national minimum wage on twenty first June 2011 . Introduced by Human Resources Deputy Minister, Maznah Mazlan in Parliament, the National Wages Consultative Council (NWCC) bill was tabled for its first reading. Most significantly, the general public does not widely share the negative opinion of the minimum wage, according to surveys. What questions us, is whether there is a need for minimum wage, and if there, how effective it might be. Statement of the Problem This paper will investigate on the need and the effectiveness of the yet to be minimum wage bill among security guards, cleaners with its current value of RM720. The idea of having a national minimum wage in Malaysia has been proposed more than 12 years ago by the Malaysian Trades Union Congress (MTUC), when Tun Mahatir was still the Prime Minister, and has been continuously rejected, until more recently, the current prime minister, Datuk Seri Najib has stated in the Malaysia Budget 2011 speech â€Å"Businesses must embrace the minimum wage as a business strategy†. A minimum wage theoretically, is planned to affect the low-skilled workers such as janitors, cleaners and security, who are paid with low wages which affect their standards of living. With a minimum wage in effect, they were supposed to be able to raise their standards of living and live a more comfortable life. Conversely, Orrenius and Zavodny (2008) and Ragayah Haji mat Zin(2007) argue that the effect of a minimum wage may just put these low skilled workers out of employment because of economic conditions in country, putting the low-skilled workers in an even worse situation: unemployment. Research Purpose This paper aims to investigate whether or not Malaysia is in need for implementation of a national minimum wage, based on the reviews of recent developments in the literature pertaining to the overall effects of a minimum wage, and the opinions of the janitors, cleaners and security guards. The focus is on the perceptions of low-paid workers as mentioned earlier and their satisfaction with the amount they are being paid and whether or not it covered their day to day expenses. Analysis can be made on whether or not these workers were exploited by the absence of a minimum wage and that a minimum wage is indeed can end such situations. To answer the questions surveys will be done and literature review will be made that will analyze on how are salaries are appointed and later on the consequences of implementing the minimum wage. This paper aims to answer the following questions: 1)Is there any need for Malaysia to implement national minimum wage? 2) As for now are low-paid workers are paid enough to cover their daily expenses? )Does the law bring a tangible change? Significance of the Study There are lots of studies pertaining to the issue of minimum wage around the globe, however, only few had focused on the issue being practiced in Malaysia, like Rohayu Abd. Ghani in her article† Salary and Wages in Malaysia† and David Lim in his article â€Å"†Sweet Labor† and Wages in Malaysian Manufacturing† . Referring to the history of an alysis, some have focused on developing countries that have already implemented the minimum wage, like P. Jones, where he discusses issues pertaining Ghana; or first world countries, like M. Bowey and A. Lupton where comprehensive explanation about implementation in United Kingdom was done or D. Neumark and W. Wascher analyzing the situation in USA. This brings us to the conclusion that more studies need to be done to find out the conditions of so-called â€Å"black workers†: janitors, cleaners and security guards in Malaysia. Ironically, many newspaper articles have addressed the economic conditions in Malaysia, the effects of those on citizens of Malaysia. But never the question of implementing the minimum wage policy was taken any further. Findings of the investigation will be helpful in determining if the minimum wage needs to be implemented, to analyze whether it would be actually successful in improving the lives of janitors, cleaners and security guards, and whether or not their current salaries will be sufficient for them to live a comfortable life, as concerning this issue Shireen (1998) has shown that poverty in Malaysia officially seen s as a situation of relative rather than absolute deprivation. By understanding their conditions, a better decision of how the minimum wage could be implemented can be recommended and the proximity of the issue can be understood. 2. Literature review Bowey and Lupton (1982) has discussed that wage and salary administration is complex and subtle, and littered with techniques designed to reduce the complexity for the administrator and cope with the subtleties. The explanations that are brought together are the descriptions of the most important techniques that are available for coping with the principal tasks of wage and salary administration, and shows how and when these may be used. They propagate that there are many systems of payment which attempt to relate earnings to the work done and before any such system can be used it is necessary to assess that work in some way by comparing the nature of the work (eg. Is it heavy work? Does it carry a large amount of responsibility? ), it may also involve assessing the rate at which the employees are working and rewarding them according to their different rates of performance. The first method is job evaluation while latter is work measurement. Regarding this matter they outline that â€Å"Job evaluation and work measurement are two subjective areas which are of crucial importance to the operative and the manager as they radically affect the payback and the quality of work† ( Bowey Lupton, 1982, p. 159). And here is the issue that we have, why is that in some instances, wage amounts differ, regarding the fact that it’s one country, one sector of work, but yet, some workers are abused and get to be paid a very low salary. The inform us that there are three different consideration while salary is being allocated to each job. First, the mechanics of assigning different amount of money to different positions is the job hierarchy and different standards of performance. Second, consideration of the absolute levels of pay which should be given when pay in other organizations is taken into account. Third, the process of negotiation between the management and the union about levels of payment. And exactly the third consideration appears to be quite an issue. Why is that we require the workers to give the just amount of performance, finishing the assigned work, but we aren’t just in giving enough reward for the effort contributed. It appears, that using the power as an upper- manager who hires, the abundance of work supplying the market, especially with the flow of illegal immigrants, workers will have to agree on terms offered. Do we consider the undue influence and abuse of situation as an ethical act? Bowey Lupton(1982) stated that: With management by objectives, the employee and his superior agree a set of objectives for the coming year, and the individual is given salary increase at the end of the year, which is partly determined by how well he has succeeded in achieving those targets (p. ) Theoretically, the wage systems seems just fine. Unfortunately, this is not the case in Malaysia. Plantation workers are initially paid RM350 and can achieve RM700 with bonuses. Would that be enough for an average Malaysian citizen to cover rent, food expenses? They argue that â€Å"If we give equal rations to everyone, who do we designate to carry out the most onerous tasks-and on what basis do we make this choice? † ( Bowey Lupton, 1982, p. 159). In the end, whether we like it or not management has to make decisions about the worth of the contribution comparing different levels of jobs and finally assigns the salary, even if the appointed salary makes it cheaper than in other place as starting amount of salary differs from the budget of one institution to another. Journal Business Asia has analyzed the ambivalent attitude of government to foreign labor. Before the crisis 2. 5 million immigrant workers were regarded as â€Å"undesirable but necessary encumbrance†( Business Asia,2000,p. 2) . It is a very degrading attitude toward human being, be he from first world country or third, but what matters is that, in the end, we can’t change much. Laws and bills are issued, but these workers still are considered cheap workers for black jobs. This type of attitude is problematic, as the accountability and dignity of an employee disappears, especially when allocating the salary. Wikipedia (2011) states that the minimum wa ge that Malaysia has stated for plantation workers is RM350 and that even may reach RM700 with bonuses! The article explains further â€Å"Officially-orchestrated- and mostly employer-funded-repatriation programmes saw the number of registered foreign workers drop below 700,000 by end 1999, from peak of 1. 2million in 1997†(Business Asia,2000,p. 12) . Though, after the pressure from exasperated employers, the government announced the lifting of a freeze on the recruitment of foreign workers, but yet, â€Å"the grudging nature of the concession was underlined by an accompanying list of 138 categories of job† for Malaysians only (Business Asia, 2000,p. 12). And ironically, all these statement are done by those who â€Å"stated an intention to transform Malaysia from a production to a knowledge- based economy† (Business Asia, 2000, p. 12). Employers complain that â€Å"Instead of encouraging the free-thinking innovators needed to help realize such a lofty ambition, the education system seems expressly programmed to eliminate them† (Business Asia,2000, p. 12). All of the above had lead to the core of the issue, the rise of salary. The fear among employers is that a rise in wages will eventually begin â€Å"outstripping productivity gains† (Business Asia,2000, p. 2). Despite the increase of GDP by 3. 7% wages by relative modest grew by 2. 7%. The question is what should stand above, a just increase in wages, which a company can afford, or the increase of the profits at the expense of exploitation of decent workers. As Annil Netto reports at Indian-Malaysian Online â€Å"The Malaysian Trades Union Congress, an umbrella for private sector unions, threatened by nationwide strike if its request for a minimum would be ignored, even so, the Malaysian government gave a cool response †. In March 2000 a national survey by MUTC and International Labor Organization has revealed that some 2 million workers earned less than a poverty- line income of RM600, MTUC demanded at least RM1,200, which we still do not have in 2011. Further, Jones (1997) examines the impact of minimum wage legislation in developing countries with incomplete coverage, using the case of Ghana. Her extensive research has proved that the implementation of the minimum wage was not an efficient policy for reducing the incidence of poverty in a situation where coverage of the minimum wage legislation is partial. The reason is that people working outside of the wage sector e. g. Farmers who survive by selling and consuming their own output are not covered by the minimum wage, and they are the ones who are in need of the minimum wage. Thus, the implementation of the minimum wage becomes non-effective. Her results have shown that the minimum wage in Ghana had a negative impact on employment; there were significant job losses due to the policy. Although the study is based on the case of Ghana, it can be deduced that if Malaysia were to implement the minimum wage, it should cover a large proportion of the population, and not just those working in the public sector, to increase coverage. Ghana and Malaysia are two different countries of different cultures and mentalities, government structure, though communality are the social problems that each faces. But the differences might tell us that policies implemented in one will not necessarily give the same results if applied in the other. The main key point that could be inserted is that the minimum wage should have a large coverage, in our research cleaners and guards. Saget (2001) examines the relationship between the level of minimum wage and employment and between the level of minimum wage and poverty through literature survey and also empirical evidence. The response of employment and poverty to changes in the minimum wage on more than twenty countries was tested in the research, and â€Å"†¦ he data analysis had given strong support to the proposition that the minimum wage may bring positive results in poverty alleviation by improving the living conditions of workers and their families. † (Saget, 2001,p. 31). The literature survey however, had differing opinions, for example some papers mentioned that raising the minimum wage in developing countries may contribute to a widening of the gap between the covered and uncovered sector, similar to Jones (2007), generating relative poverty. Unlike Jones (2007), Saget’s (2001) analysis proved that minimum wage had no negative results on employment whereas Jones had shown that the minimum wage policy had caused significant job losses. This is because Jones’ study was focused on incomplete coverage of the minimum wage while Saget looked into the minimum wage in general, cross country to see the effects it had on poverty and employment. Therefore based on Jones’ study, if Malaysia were to implement the minimum wage, then up till now there would be a reduction in poverty, which is positive and one of the goals of Malaysia in becoming a high income nation by 2020. Jones did not manage to find a significant link between unemployment and the minimum wage thus, this means that a minimum wage would not cause unemployment to increase significantly. However, the results could also mean that countries that implement the minimum wage are more committed to reducing the level of poverty in the country thus leading to results which imply that setting a higher minimum wage would reduce poverty. Lo (2010) in his paper titled ‘The case for a minimum wage in Malaysia† is a highly passionate in support of the minimum wage. It is perhaps due to the fact that the writer is the secretary of the MTUC which is the very same organization that has been pushing for minimum wage legislation in Malaysia for over 12 years now. Malaysian workers suffer from suppressed wages because of the influx of cheap foreign labor, but having a minimum wage according to the Malaysian Employers Federation (MEF) would hurt Malaysian’s competitiveness due to the increase in costs firms will have to incur. However this is countered by Lo (2010), â€Å"If a firm cannot even provide a decent living wage to its workers – one that is enough to meet their basic needs – it has no business being in business†(p. 3). He also suggested that Malaysia can’t always depend on cheap foreign labor forever. Although now it would be expensive to invest in research and development to develop tools that would improve productivity, it would be cheaper in the long run to use these machines. Furthermore, higher wages lead to higher productivity. It would encourage employers to invest in research and development to increase overall productivity and efficiency. Malaysia has not been spending much on research and development, especially private sector, but this would change if there was minimum wage legislation, and more on research and development would give Malaysia a better future. According to this, Malaysia should implement the minimum wage, because of the effects it has in reducing social poverty and also its potential in enhancing economic growth and productivity improvements. â€Å"There is a growing view among economists that the minimum wage offers substantial benefits to low-wage workers without negative effect. Although there are still dissenters, the best recent research has shown that the job loss reported in earlier analyses does not, in fact, occur when the minimum wage is increased† (Fox, 2006, p. 1). Also, over 650 economists, including five Nobel Prize winners and six past presidents of the American Economic Association, recently signed a statement stating that federal and state minimum wage increases â€Å"can significantly improve the lives of low-income workers and their families, without the adverse effects hat critics have claimed† (EPI, 2006). Although the paper focused purely on the evidences from the USA, the effects of minimum wage are still similar if it were to be implemented in Malaysia. However, there could be major differences as Malaysia would be implementing the minimum wage for the first time, while the USA has been doing it for much longer and their case is to do with raising the minimum wage. Malaysia would face lots of opposition in the beginning as t he adjustment process would take time. Card and Krueger (1995) extensively describe the effectiveness of minimum wages of each sector of US population. As stated by CIA World Factbook (2011) US GDP for year 1995 was 2. 51 and 3. 7 for year 2006, and current GDP of Malaysia is 3. 9,hence we can conclude similarities in the phase of economical development. Card and Krueger present us a new body of evidence showing that recent minimum wage increases have not had the negative employment effects predicted by the textbook model. Some of the new evidence points toward a positive effect of minimum wage on employment most show no effect at all. Moreover, a reanalysis of previous minimum wage studies finds little support for the prediction that minimum wages reduce employment, like Richard Lester during the 1940 or Card and Krueger initial work in 1988, California state as a case study. If accepted, the findings will call into question the standard model of the labor market that has dominated economists’ thinking for the past half century. They have showed us the empirical findings which result in later: first of all, a study of employment in the fast- food industry after the increase in New Jersey minimum wage was not affected adversely by law, stating that â€Å"modest increases in the minimum wage have no adverse effect on the employment outcomes of low-wage workers† (Card Krueger, 1995, p. 114) as Lo ( 2010) and Saget (2001) had argued above. The results were gathered from 400 restaurants. Relative to restaurants in Pennsylvania, where the minimum wage remained unchanged, they found that â€Å"employment growth within New Jersey was higher at restaurants† (Card Krueger,1995, p. 46). Second, a cross-state analysis finds that the 1990 and 1991 increases in the federal minimum wage did not affect teenage employment adversely. Thirdly, an increase in the minimum wage leads to a situation in which workers who previously were paid different wages all receive the new minimum wage. Card Krueger(1995) argue that once there is an increase in the minimum wage it would result in a â€Å"ripple effect†, leading to pay raises for workers who previously earned wages above the new minimum. Surprisingly, increases in minimum wage do not appear to be offset by reductions in fringe benefits. Increase of such kinds has decreased the minimum dispersion, partially reversing the trend toward rising wage inequality that has dominated the labor market since the early 1980s. Finally, as a fact minimum wage is a blunt instrument for reducing poverty. It’s â€Å"an amount that is smaller than most other federal antipoverty programs, and that can have only limited effects on the overall income distribution† (Card Krueger,1995, p. 3). They also note, that â€Å"more than 60 percent of all workers have worked for the minimum wage at some time during their careers(Card Krueger,1995, p. ). References Anonymous (2000). No staff, no skills, Business Asia, Vol. 32 Issue 14, p12, 4/5p Card D. , Krueger A. B. ,(1995). Myth and measurement. The new economics of the minimum wage. Fox, L. (2006). Minimum wage trends: Understanding past and contemporary research. Retrieved from http://www. epi. org/publications/entry/bp178/ Jones, P. (1997). The Impact of Minimum Wage Legislat ion in Developing Countries where Coverage is Incomplete. Retrieved from http://www. bepress. com/cgi/viewcontent. cgi? article=1066=csae- redir=1#search=†jones+ghana+wage† Lo, A. 2010). The case for a minimum wage. Retrieved from http://www. mtuc. org. my/andrewminimumwageaug2010. pdf M Bowey,A. , Lupton, T. (1982)Managing Salary and Wage systems,Great Britain: Gower Publishing Company Retrieved from http://www. indianmalaysian. com/minimum_wage. htm Retrieved from https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/ html Saget, C. (2001). Poverty reduction and decent work in developing countries: Do minimum wages help?. International Labour Review, 140. Retrieved from http://www. ingentaconnect. com/content/ilo/ilr/2001/00000140/00000003/art00002 How to cite Minimum Wage in Malaysia, Papers

Jackie Robinson Analysis Essay Example For Students

Jackie Robinson Analysis Essay Jackie Robinson, Baseball, and the Struggle for EqualityBaseball has always been known as America’s pastime. But America‘s pastime, along with America’s past, have both been saturated with the brutal force of racism. For hundreds of years, from the time of slavery until the middle of the 20th century, African-American children rounded up their friends and headed to the baseball diamond. There, for thousands of young black players, the smell of the grass, the cloud of dust that formed when running the ninety feet between bases, and the feeling of safely sliding into homeplate for a run marked the glimmer of fun and excitement in an otherwise dreary day. However, due to the color of their skin, black children were not awarded these luxuries. For aspiring black ballplayers, a baseball field with bats and actual baseballs would be a dream come true. Instead they were forced to play with rocks and sticks in an alley or run-down sandlot. But this would never stop them, the thrill and joy of baseball was too great. When playing, it seemed as if all their worries and fears floated away and only one thing matteredbaseball. Baseball was their escape, their livelihood, and the topic of all their hopes and dreams. For young black ballplayers, baseball was much more than a game. The word aspiring must also be clarified. See, for black players, one undeniable truth was always present. No matter how good you were, no matter how many homeruns or stolen bases you had, how hard you hit the ball or how fast you threw the ball, no matter if you had the ability to play with the best of the best, Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, and Mickey Mantle, there was one thing you never hadthe right skin color. The word aspiring did not exist in the black language. For over two hundred years black people were forced to deal with this truth, the truth that smashed the dreams of hundreds of thousands of aspiring black ballplayers, the truth that left them with the horrible feeling of inf eriority. This feeling was felt until April 15, 1947, until the man who would change all this stepped up to bat, marking the first time an African-American played in the major leagues.# Jackie Robinson was the man, and as far as the African-American race is concerned, Jackie Robinson is the man. The day has lived in history as the first day of the beginning of a new truth. That, with hard work and a heart the size of a watermelon, black people could aspire to be more. Jackie Robinson is responsible for the truth of hope, a truth more powerful than any other. With this new hope, Jackie Robinson and the African-American race marked the beginning of the struggle for the ultimate holy grailequality. Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919 in Cairo, Georgia. The grandson of a slave and son of a sharecropper, â€Å"Jackie,† as he become known, struggled from the very beginning. He was the youngest of five children in a poor family. After his father abandoned him at the age of one, his mother was forced to work many jobs just to support the family.# Jackie was very outspoken from the beginning. As a young child confronted with the everyday racist taunts from nearby white children, Jackie lashed back and always stood up for himself, sometimes to the tune of beatings from the children. But Jackie didn’t care. Even despite advice from his elementary teacher, who said he was â€Å"destined to be a gardener,†# Jackie always fought the infinite number of tactics to keep him and his race inferior. Jackie believed that God had plans for him, plans beyond the scope of the normal Negro of the times. As he grew older, his fighting spirit continued to follow him along. In 1942, more than a decade before the famous Rosa Parks struggle, Jackie was confronted with a similar situation. Told by an officer to leave his seat on the white section of the bus and move to the back, the black section of the bus, Jackie refused. The scene soon escalated, but Jackie stood firm and refused to budge. The act of defiance resulted in a court martial for Robinson, who was facing the possible outcome of â€Å"dishonorable discharge.† He fought in court and proved the act was a violation against the discrimination code of the army, and won his right to a â€Å"honorable discharge.â€Å"# This attitude of defiance was a strong part of Jackie Robinson’s personality, a part that one will see, never died. To prove himself to society and be the person he always wanted to be, Jackie used his god-given talent, his amazing athletic ability. When it came to sports it did not take long to realize that Jackie was extremely gifted . In High School and in College, at the University of California-Los Angeles, Jackie excelled like no other, literally. He played baseball, basketball, football, and track, and was the only player in UCLA history to letter in all four sports.# In fact, it was said his best sport was not even baseball, that he was a natural at basketball and had â€Å"football shoulders.† It just so happened that the NFL and NBA were not as accepting as baseball was in the mid-Twentieth Century. But it was not always like that. Due to segregation and the underlying presence of racism in society, black ballplayers were forced to make their own leagues. As early as 1920, Negro Baseball Leagues showcased talent to the likes of Satchel Paige, Roy Campanella, Josh Gibson, Marvin Williams, and Sam Jethroe.# Names unrecognizable to the average baseball fan, however it has been said that black players like the ones mentioned and many more were as good, better, or even much better than the white players in the Major Leagues. Unfortunately, due to the color of their skin, the Negro leagues were given practically zero exposure and the same amount of respect. Negro Leagues were seen in a similar way as the Negro themselvesinferior. Although the talent and quality of baseball in the Negro leagues was extremely hig h, the conditions played in were exactly the opposite. Long rides in overly abused buses with no heating or air-conditioning, locker rooms were worn-down or nonexistent, and financial difficulties arose quite frequently due to such factors as renting the stadiums from white owners who charged exorbitant prices.# Baseball in the Negro leagues was no lap of luxury. Yet thousands of players endured the abuse to continue to play the game they loved. They played even though they did not receive one ounce of respect from the American public. It was not till Jackie Robinson integrated baseball in 1947 that black players began to receive the respect they deserved. Jackie Robinson was not alone in changing the lives of every African-American in the United States of America. In 1942, a man named Branch Rickey stepped into the Dodgers head office with a plan for baseball and a plan for America. He had scouted many black players and decided the time was right for the â€Å"Great Experiment,† as it become known.# The only question was who would it be? Who would be the one that would change the way our society functioned then and now? The player had to be much more than an amazing athlete, capable of multiple feats on the baseball diamond. The player had to be one who had the strength and willpower to withstand the constant cruelty that was sure to occur. In 1945, Branch and Jackie sat down to discuss the miraculous feat. To change history, Branch said, â€Å"I’m looking for a ballplayer with guts enough not to fight back.† This man was to be Jackie Robinson. Although Jackie had always had a fighting spirit and was not one to ke ep emotions to himself, Jackie was the man who had the courage and strength not to. Im not concerned with your liking or disliking me,† Jackie said, â€Å"All I ask is that you respect me as a human being.†# Jackie knew it would take time, but be well worth it in the end. If baseball’s â€Å"Great Experiment† were to be a success, it would be the first aspect of American society to integrate. One year later the second aspect of American society integrated, the United States government desegregated the army.# Jackie Robinson knew the implications of what he was getting himself into, he knew he would be harassed, verbally and physically abused, and even worse. But he also knew the effects he would have on the improvements of African-American equality in society. Jackie was ready and waiting for this ultimate challenge. On October 30, 1945, Jackie was pulled up from the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro leagues and officially became the first black person to sign a Major League contract.# However, in the beginning, baseball’s â€Å"Great Experiment† was baseball’s â€Å"great secret.† A year before this a secret poll was conducted of Major league managers and owners on the question of blacks in baseball, the results were not positive. Fifteen of the sixteen polled responded â€Å"No,† with the only â€Å"Yes† vote coming from Branch Rickey.# Branch felt the move to integrate baseball had to be slow and meticulous. So, on April 18, 1946, Jackie Robinson made his minor league debut for the Montreal Royals, the International League affiliate of the Brooklyn Dodgers. With an impressive hitting display: a three run homerun, a solid single, two bunt singles, and speed that led to 2 stolen bases and two balks home, the rookie second baseman and the Montreal Royals beat the hometown Giants 14 -1.# The public’s outrage of a Negro playing with white people were silenced by the outstanding talent of Jackie Robinson. This is the only reason integration in sports was possible in the first place. Sport is different from many other aspects of society because it is on a relatively fair playing field. Whoever crosses the finish line first wins the race, this can not be disputed. For Jackie, this was his only escape. It was hard for Montreal fans to yell and scream and shout racist slurs at the man who just won them the game. Over time, Montreal fans stopped mobbing him with scrutiny and verbal abuse, and learned to love him. They soon mobbed him with physical abuse; pats on the back, slaps on the butt, and even occasional â€Å"congratulation hugs.†In fact, after one game that was won by Jackie, the crowd needed to be held back by security guards as Jackie smiled and waved and attempted to budge through the anxiously awaiting fans. Jackie led the league in batting and led his team to win the Minor League World Series.# Life in Montreal was good, but would soon take an excitin g twist. Because of Jackie’s amazing play in Montreal, he was moved up to the Brooklyn Dodgers of the Major Leagues in 1947. However, the transition was not an easy one. To begin his career in New York, he first learned the team he was to join had filed a petition to stop him and any other Negro from entering the league. Newspaper articles, television, and overall public gossip was primarily putting him down. They said he could not do it, and denounced the ability of a Negro to play in the Major leagues.# Jackie was back at square one. When Jackie stepped up to the plate, the roar of boos from the fans was heard in neighboring counties. Racist slurs like â€Å"Nigger son of a bitch† were often heard. Every time Jackie went to bat, he avoided looking at the crowd, for fear I would see only Negroes applauding,# he said. Pitchers would intentionally hit Jackie at the plate, and, because Jackie played second base, opponents would slide into him blatantly sticking their spi kes high in the air in an attempt to injure Jackie. There were even numerous death threats, one said if Jackie showed up to play in Cincinnati, he would be shot at site. On the road, when the team stayed in nice hotels, Jackie was forbidden and was forced to stay in homes willing enough to take him in.# But Jackie, like Rickey said, had the amazing strength to not fight back. For he knew every time he lashed back, the insults would only get worse and his goal of African-American equality would only become more impossible. The first two years in the majors were by far his most challenging. But again, like it did in Montreal, his amazing ability as a baseball player saved him from the torture of being a black man in a white world. In 1947, he received the Rookie of the Year Award and slowly, as it was in Montreal, he began to receive the respect he deserved.# Soon, the same newspapers that questioned his ability to â€Å"make it in the big leagues,† was exclaiming his amazing w onder as a baseball player. Jackie was now in the spotlight and experiencing the severe pressure of being the first African-American in baseball. But Jackie’s attention would soon turn away from baseball and focus more on the big pictureCivil Rights and African-American equality. History of animation EssayJackie passed a torch on to every black player.# This quote by Hank Aaron exemplifies the amazing influence Jackie had on thousands of black athletes. Without him, no one would have ever heard the names Walter Payton, Magic Johnson, Frank Thomas, Ken Griffey Jr., and Michael Jordan. Jackie Robinson aspired these and hundreds of thousands of other African-Americans to make their lives the best possible for themselves and for everyone around them, to strive for success when success seems impossible, to keep making goals even though some people try to break them, and to achieve what was thought to be unachievable. Superstars, notably Arthur Ashe and Kareem-Abdul Jabbar, have spoken out on the impact of Jackie Robinson on their lives. Many athletes even wear his number, forty-two, as a commemoration.# The aftermath of Jackie Robinson has created the likes of such programs as the Jackie Robinson Foundation and the Jackie Robinson Society, who both have contribu ted immensely to the cause of the Negro. Scholarships, housing, employment, and education programs are just a few of the large number of services such committees are responsible for.# His marks on society have been recognized in many ways. The Rookie of the Year in baseball receives the Jackie Robinson Rookie of the Year Award and UCLA plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium. In fact, Nike even did an ad campaign showing the impact of Jackie Robinson on society.# Even though he maybe dead, the things he created and the people he influenced are still very much alive and continue to live out his goal of achieving equality. When given the opportunity to speak, Robinson made the best of it. Many of things he said were as important as things he did. Similar to the powerful words of his friend Martin Luther King Jr., Jackie Robinson moved and motivated everyone who heard him speak. Some of his famous quotes are Theres not an American in this country free until every one of us is free. â€Å"Negroes arent seeking anything which is not good for the nation as well as ourselves. In order for America to be 100 per cent strongeconomically, defensively, and morallywe cannot afford the waste of having second-and-third class citizens.† Life is not a spectator sport. . .. If youre going to spend your whole life in the grandstand just watching what goes on, in my opinion youre wasting your life. I dont think that I or any other Negro, as an American citizen, should have to ask for anything that is rightfully his. We are demanding that we just be given the things that are rightfully ours and were not looking fo r anything else. I believe in the goodness of a free society. And I believe that society can remain good only as long as we are willing to fight for it and to fight against whatever imperfections may exist.# When Jackie spoke, America listened. To best sum up the miraculous effect of Jackie Robinson on the African-American and on the American society is truly impossible, it can not be summed up. It is much too monumental. But, the following poem by Ed Charles comes relatively close, He ripped at the sod along the base pathOn his feet were your hopes and mineFor a victory for the black mans case. And the world is grateful for the legacyThanks, Jackie, wherever you are. You will always be our first superstar In 1972, Jackie Robinson died, but his legacy never will. Today, the effects of Jackie Robinson can be seen wherever one looks. On the covers of Sports Illustrated, ESPN, Rolling Stones, and even the Wall Street Journal, African-Americans are now seen in a much different light than in the fifties. Since Jackie Robinson integrated baseball in 1947, black society in America has truly broken barriers. Although arguable, it is my contention that the 54 years after the first day Jackie Robinson stepped up to the plate was the best 54 years in African-American improvements of all time. More importantly than improvements in black America, are the improvements in all of America, in every facet of life. Jackie Robinson was not only great at playing baseball, but also great at playing life. Quoting the recent Nike advertising campaign, â€Å"Thank you Jackie Robinson.†# Bibliography:

Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay Essay Example

Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay Paper In order to measure the extent to which Freud’s theory can assist to understand a client’s showing issue. an apprehension of the theory will be discussed. I shall so look at the unfavorable judgments in order to do my rating. before coming to my concluding decision. The Theory behind Psychosexual Development Born on May 6. 1856 in Moravia. Sigmund Freud was an Austrian brain doctor who in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries. developed the field of depth psychology. Freud developed many theories including those that focus on the unconscious. the reading of dreams. Id. self-importance. and ace self-importance. and what is referred to as the psychosexual development theory. We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Freud saw the unconscious head as the existent beginning of mental energy. which determined behavior. and as many psychological attacks still assert ; behaviors is directed by an individual’s ends. Freud believed that behavior is the direct consequence of influence of all anterior experience. and these influences have greater consequence if from childhood. Harmonizing to Freud these experiences formed solid foundations on which a development kid would construction the remainder of its life. Adult personality was formed from childhood. harmonizing to the experience and intervention as a kid. Freud formed the sentiment that the early experiences of childhood were responsible for the development of personality. particularly during the first five old ages of life. He so went further and divided the infant’s development into phases associating to the comparative importance of zonary parts of the organic structure. which were relevant to the baby at a peculiar point in clip. Oral Phase The unwritten phase occurs in an infant’s life from birth to 18 months. During this clip. an baby is focused with having unwritten pleasance. This occurs through chest or bottle eating. or sucking on a conciliator. It is believed that if an infant receives excessively much or excessively small unwritten stimulation. they may develop a arrested development or a personality trait that is fixated on unwritten satisfaction. It is believed that these people may concentrate on activities that involve the oral cavity such as over feeding. seize with teething the fingernails. smoke. or imbibing. The theory states that these people may develop personality traits such as going highly fleeceable or naif. ever following others and neer taking the lead. and going highly dependent upon others. Anal Phase The anal phase is straight related to a child’s consciousness of intestine control and gaining pleasance through the act of extinguishing or retaining fecal matters. Freud’s theory puts the anal phase between 18 months and three old ages. It is believed that when a kid becomes fixated on having pleasance through commanding and extinguishing fecal matters. a kid can go haunted with control. flawlessness. and cleanliness. This is frequently referred to as anal retentive. while anal expulsive is the opposite. Those who are anal expulsive may be highly disorganized. unrecorded in pandemonium. and are known for doing musss. Phallic Phase Freud believed the phallic phase or the Oedipus or Electra composites occurs during a kid is three to six old ages of age. The belief is that male kids harbour unconscious. sexual attractive force to their female parents. while female kids develop a sexual attractive force to their male parent. Freud taught that immature male childs besides deal with feelings of competition with their male parent. These feelings of course resolve one time the kid begins to place with their same sex parent. By placing with the same sex parent. the kid continues with normal. healthy sexual development. If a kid becomes fixated during this stage. the consequence could be sexual aberrance or a baffled sexual individuality. Latency Stage The latency phase is named so because Freud believed there weren’t many overt signifiers of sexual satisfaction displayed. This phase is said to last from the age of six until a kid enters puberty. Most kids throughout this age signifier same sex friendly relationships and drama in a mode that is non-sexual. Unconscious sexual desires and ideas remain pent-up. Genital Phase Freud believed that after the unconscious. sexual desires are repressed and remain hibernating during the latency phase. they are awakened due to puberty. This phase begins at pubescence and develops with the physiology alterations brought on through endocrines. The anterior phases of development consequence in a focal point on the genitalias as a beginning for pleasance and teens develop and explore attractive forces to the opposite sex. The venereal phase is the last phase of the psychosexual development theory. Freud besides divided the head. the PSYCHE. into three parts: 1. The unconscious – stuff which can non be brought into witting consciousness 2. Preconscious – stuff non presently in witting consciousness but can be brought up to that degree easy. 3. Conscious – stuff that is present at that point in clip. These constructs can be equated to the ID. Ego. and Super-ego. These are abstract constructs which relate to the subconscious forces of the head which dominate human behavior. The Id The Idaho is the lone constituent of personality that is present from birth. This facet of personality is wholly unconscious and includes of the natural and crude behavior. Harmonizing to Freud. the Idaho is the beginning of all psychic energy. doing it the primary constituent of personality. The Idaho is driven by the pleasance rule. which strives for immediate satisfaction of all desires. wants. and demands. If these demands are non satisfied instantly. the consequence is a province anxiousness or tenseness. For illustration. an addition in hungriness or thirst should bring forth an immediate effort to eat or imbibe. The Idaho is really of import early in life. because it ensures that an infant’s demands are met. If the baby is hungry or uncomfortable. he or she will shout until the demands of the Idaho are met. However. instantly fulfilling these demands is non ever realistic or even possible. If we were ruled wholly by the pleasance rule. we might happen ourselves catching things we want out of other people’s custodies to fulfill our ain cravings. This kind of behavior would be both riotous and socially unacceptable. Harmonizing to Freud. the id attempts to decide the tenseness created by the pleasance rule through the primary procedure. which involves organizing a mental image of the coveted object as a manner of fulfilling the demand. The Ego The self-importance is the constituent of personality that is responsible for covering with world. Harmonizing to Freud. the ego develops from the Idaho and ensures that the urges of the Idaho can be expressed in a mode acceptable in the existent universe. The ego maps in the witting. preconscious. and unconscious head. The self-importance operates based on the world rule. which strives to fulfill the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The world rule weighs the costs and benefits of an action before make up ones minding to move upon or abandon urges. In many instances. the id’s urges can be satisfied through a procedure of delayed gratification–the self-importance will finally let the behavior. but merely in the appropriate clip and topographic point. The self-importance besides discharges tenseness created by unmet urges through the secondary procedure. in which the self-importance tries to happen an object in the existent universe that mat ches the mental image created by the id’s primary procedure. The Super-ego The last constituent of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the facet of personality that holds all of our internalized moral criterions and ideals that we get from both parents and society–our sense of right and incorrect. The superego provides guidelines for doing judgements. Harmonizing to Freud. the superego begins to emerge at about age five. There are two parts of the superego: 1. The ego ideal includes the regulations and criterions for good behaviors. These behaviors include those which are approved of by parental and other authorization figures. Obeying these regulations leads to feelings of pride. value and achievement. 2. The scruples includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are frequently out and lead to bad effects. penalties or feelings of guilt and compunction. The superego Acts of the Apostless to hone and educate our behavior. It works to stamp down all unacceptable impulses of the Idaho and struggles to do the self-importance act upon idealistic criterions instead that upon realistic rules. The superego is present in the witting. preconscious and unconscious. The Interaction of the Id. Ego and Superego With so many viing forces. it is easy to see how struggle might originate between the Idaho. self-importance and superego. Freud used the term self-importance strength to mention to the ego’s ability to work despite these duelling forces. A individual with good self-importance strength is able to efficaciously pull off these force per unit areas. while those with excessively much or excessively small ego strength can go excessively dogged or excessively disrupting. Harmonizing to Freud. the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the Idaho. the self-importance. and the superego. Criticisms of the theory The book Human Development ( D. A. Louw. 1998 ) states that Freud’s theory is the consequence of an inventive reading of the memories and dreams of grownup neurotic patients instead than the consequence of a systematic observation of kids. This methodical failing is one of the most serious unfavorable judgments of his work. Memory is non a dependable beginning of scientific information. since it is frequently uncomplete. faulty. vague. and can be interpreted in many ways. In add-on. many of Freud’s patients became cognizant of his theories. and it is possible that they unconsciously changed and coloured their dreams and memories to match to his theories. Another unfavorable judgment is that Freud’s database was biased in the sense that he relied chiefly on the memories of his neurotic patients. instead than those of normal. well-balanced people. His attack was besides biased because in Freud’s clip. sexual tabu were much stricter that they are today. So it is possible that his strong accent on pent-up sexual thrusts is the consequence of the morality of that clip. A farther serious unfavorable judgment of his theory is that he saw the individual’s development as practically complete by the age of six. The accent on early childhood has prevented the proper survey of farther development for several decennaries. The concluding unfavorable judgment in this book is that Freud dealt with merely a few facets of human development. viz. psychosexual development. and to a limited grade. the development of aggression. The development of of import facet of human working such as thought. linguistic communication. societal relationships. emotions and motive were either wholly ignored or seen through the screen of his psychosexual theory. Other texts ballad claim to the same unfavorable judgments along with others ; that conclude that the theory is about wholly on male development with small reference of female psychosexual development. Such constructs as libido are impossible to mensurate. and hence can non be tested. and that Future anticipations are excessively obscure. How can we cognize that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of clip between the cause and the consequence is excessively long to presume that there is a relationship between the two variables. However. we can non deny that yesteryear has a important function to play in the presenting issue of a client and in the intervention of that issue. The neurotic behavior will necessarily come from a clients past. and I have no uncertainty that we become the people we are today because of our yesteryears. You could associate Freud’s theory to a sociopath. as they neer seem to germinate beyond the ID phase. They refer to others as objects. as they have neer have been able to develop to the latency phase where a lovingness and apprehension of others is acquired. so worlds are simply objects. So. for illustration. a consecutive raper has a demand to fulfill his sexual impulses. his self-importance is non at that place to guarantee that although he may hold that idea it is non socially acceptable to transport out the act. and there is no super-ego to do him experience guilty about his actions. However. it could besides be suggested that said individual was abused as a kid. and in bend. because of the hurting suffered as an abuse-e. they became the maltreater. In footings of moralss. if a healer was to result the psychosexual development as a complete procedure in their analysis of a clients issues. from research. they would hence be seeking through a clients past for the cause of the issues entirely through those phases. and would necessarily hold the demand to happen something within that clip cross to be the cause of the clients issues. This could either. conveying the healer to the decision that there can non be anything incorrect with the client. or could do the client believe that the cause of their issues was related to something that was of no existent relation to their presenting issue at all. therefore doing more emphasis and anxiousness within the client. We all remember certain phases of our life. good and bad. but those phases may be of no importance to us. but if person in authorization is discoursing these issues with you. they come to the surface ( into you witting ) . and so you could easy get down to believe that this cou ld be the cause. Decision Freud’s theories form the footing of all of today’s psychological theories and patterns. whether they are based from an understanding or struggle to his work. The best signifier of pattern is to handle a client’s presenting issues as to no others. but embracing tools from the work of Freud and others. and to integrate those into the pattern of deciding the presenting issues. The unconscious is a really powerful influence. and a good practician will understand this. but they must besides understand how each single interprets past state of affairss an molds them into something that their encephalon can understand. A client’s memory depends on non merely their upbringing. but their societal environment. their beliefs. faith and their coevals. Freud’s phases can easy be discredited all of these factors.

Hand Sanitizers vs. Soap and Water

Hand Sanitizers vs. Soap and Water Antibacterial hand sanitizers are marketed to the public as an effective way to wash ones hands when traditional soap and water are not available. These waterless products are particularly popular with parents of small children. Manufacturers of hand sanitizers claim that the sanitizers kill 99.9 percent of germs. Since you naturally use hand sanitizers to cleanse your hands, the assumption is that 99.9 percent of harmful germs are killed by the sanitizers. Research studies suggest that this is not the case. How Do Hand Sanitizers Work? Hand sanitizers work by stripping away the outer layer of oil on the skin. This usually prevents bacteria present in the body from coming to the surface of the hand. However, these bacteria that are normally present in the body are generally not the kinds of bacteria that will make us sick. In a review of the research, Barbara Almanza, an associate professor at Purdue University who teaches safe sanitation practices to workers, came to an interesting conclusion. She notes that the research shows that hand sanitizers do not significantly reduce the number of bacteria on the hand and in some cases may potentially increase the amount of bacteria. So the question arises, how can the manufacturers make the 99.9 percent claim? How Can Manufacturers Make the 99.9 Percent Claim? The manufacturers of the products test the products on bacteria-tainted inanimate surfaces, hence they are able to derive the claims of 99.9 percent of bacteria killed. If the products were fully tested on hands, there would no doubt be different results. Since there is inherent complexity in the human hand, testing hands would definitely be more difficult. Using surfaces with controlled variables is an easier way to obtain some type of consistency in the results. But, as we are all aware, everyday life is not as consistent. Hand Sanitizer vs. Hand Soap and Water Interestingly enough, the Food and Drug Administration, in regards to regulations concerning proper procedures for food services, recommends that hand sanitizers not be used in place of hand soap and water but only as an adjunct. Likewise, Almanza recommends that to properly sanitize the hands, soap and water should be used during hand washing. A hand sanitizer can not and should not take the place of proper cleansing procedures with soap and water. Hand sanitizers can be a useful alternative when the option of using soap and water is not available. An alcohol-based sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol should be used to ensure that germs are killed. Since hand sanitizers dont remove dirt and oils on hands, it is best to wipe your hands with a towel or napkin before applying the sanitizer. What About Antibacterial Soaps? Research on the use of consumer antibacterial soaps has shown that plain soaps are just as effective as antibacterial soaps in reducing bacteria related illnesses. In fact, using consumer antibacterial soap products may increase bacterial resistance to antibiotics in some bacteria. These conclusions only apply to consumer antibacterial soaps and not to those used in hospitals or other clinical areas. Other studies suggest that ultra-clean environments and the persistent use of antibacterial soaps and hand sanitizers may inhibit proper immune system development in children. This is because inflammatory systems require greater exposure to common germs for proper development. In September 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the marketing of over-the-counter antibacterial products that contain several ingredients including triclosan and triclocarban. Triclosan in antibacterial soaps and other products has been linked to the development of certain diseases. More on Hand Sanitizers vs. Soap and Water Hand Sanitizers No Substitute for Soap and Water - Purdue NewsTop Five Reasons to Wash Your Hands

custom college essay tips

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Law Master Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law Master - Essay Example (ii) to remove a temporary surplus of the like domestic product, or, if there is no substantial domestic production of the like product, of a domestic product for which the imported product can be directly substituted, by making the surplus available to certain groups of domestic consumers free of charge or at prices below the current market level; or (iii) to restrict the quantities permitted to be produced of any animal product the production of which is directly dependent, wholly or mainly, on the imported commodity, if the domestic production of that commodity is relatively negligible. Any contracting party applying restrictions on the importation of any product pursuant to subparagraph (c) of this paragraph shall give public notice of the total quantity or value of the product permitted to be imported during a specified future period and of any change in such quantity or value. Moreover, any restrictions applied under (i) above shall not be such as will reduce the total of imports relative to the total of domestic production, as compared with the proportion, which might reasonably be expected to rule between the two in the absence of restrictions. In determining this proportion, the contracting party shall pay due regard to the proportion prevailing during a previous representative period and to any special factors* which may have affected or may be affecting the trade in the product concerned. Brief Explanation of the Article XI: As the title suggests Article XI is concerned with the General Elimination of Quantitative Restriction from Trade. It goes on to say that a contracting party whether importing goods or exporting them shall maintain no prohibition or restrictions on them except in the form of duties, taxes and other charges that can be effective through quotas, import and export licences or other measures, Article XI advocates for the tariff regime to be put in place as trade measures. It further puts prohibition on either of the contracting parties for introducing fresh quotas and they are also required to eliminate the existing ones. However, it also lays a exception to the quantitative restrictions in case of certain domestic agricultural programs. I found the text of the Article XI by accessing the WTO website and in it the legal documents section of WTO. The URL that I accessed is 2) The cases decided by the WTO Dispute Panels and Appellate Body relating to the interpretation of Article XI are the following : Turkey - Textiles EEC - Imports from Hong Kong. India - Quantitative Restrictions US - Wool Shirts and Blouses EC - Hormones Canada - Periodicals US - Shrimp EC - Asbestos United